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History of Television

From Grolier Encyclopedia

Article by Mitchell Stephens

Few inventions have had as much effect on contemporary American society as television. Before 1947 the number of U.S. homes with television sets could be measured in the thousands. By the late 1990s, 98 percent of U.S. homes had at least one television set, and those sets were on for an average of more than seven hours a day. The typical American spends (depending on the survey and the time of year) from two-and-a-half to almost five hours a day watching television. It is significant not only that this time is being spent with television but that it is not being spent engaging in other activities, such as reading or going out or socializing.

EXPERIMENTS

Electronic television was first successfully demonstrated in San Francisco on Sept. 7, 1927. The system was designed by Philo Taylor Farnsworth, a 21-year-old inventor who had lived in a house without electricity until he was 14. While still in high school, Farnsworth had begun to conceive of a system that could capture moving images in a form that could be coded onto radio waves and then transformed back into a picture on a screen. Boris Rosing in Russia had conducted some crude experiments in transmitting images 16 years before Farnsworth’s first success. Also, a mechanical television system, which scanned images using a rotating disk with holes arranged in a spiral pattern, had been demonstrated by John Logie Baird in England and Charles Francis Jenkins in the United States earlier in the 1920s. However, Farnsworth’s invention, which scanned images with a beam of electrons, is the direct ancestor of modern television. The first image he transmitted on it was a simple line. Soon he aimed his primitive camera at a dollar sign because an investor had asked, “When are we going to see some dollars in this thing, Farnsworth?”

EARLY DEVELOPMENT

RCA, the company that dominated the radio business in the United States with its two NBC networks, invested $50 million in the development of electronic television. To direct the effort, the company’s president, David Sarnoff, hired the Russian-born scientist Vladimir Kosma Zworykin, who had participated in Rosing’s experiments. In 1939, RCA televised the opening of the New York World’s Fair, including a speech by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, who was the first president to appear on television. Later that year RCA paid for a license to use Farnsworth’s television patents. RCA began selling television sets with 5 by 12 in (12.7 by 25.4 cm) picture tubes. The company also began broadcasting regular programs, including scenes captured by a mobile unit and, on May 17, 1939, the first televised baseball gameÑbetween Princeton and Columbia universities. By 1941 the Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS), RCA’s main competition in radio, was broadcasting two 15-minute newscasts a day to a tiny audience on its New York television station.

Early television was quite primitive. All the action at that first televised baseball game had to be captured by a single camera, and the limitations of early cameras forced actors in dramas to work under impossibly hot lights, wearing black lipstick and green makeup (the cameras had trouble with the color white). The early newscasts on CBS were “chalk talks,” with a newsman moving a pointer across a map of Europe, then consumed by war. The poor quality of the picture made it difficult to make out the newsman, let alone the map. World War II slowed the development of television, as companies like RCA turned their attention to military production. Television’s progress was further slowed by a struggle over wavelength allocations with the new FM radio and a battle over government regulation. The Federal Communications Commission’s (FCC) 1941 ruling that the National Broadcasting Company (NBC) had to sell one of its two radio networks was upheld by the Supreme Court in 1943. The second network became the new American Broadcasting Company (ABC), which would enter television early in the next decade. Six experimental television stations remained on the air during the warÑone each in Chicago, Philadelphia, Los Angeles, and Schenectady, N.Y., and two in New York City. But full-scale commercial television broadcasting did not begin in the United States until 1947.
THE BEGINNING OF COMMERCIAL TELEVISION

By 1949 Americans who lived within range of the growing number of television stations in the country could watch, for example, The Texaco Star Theater (1948), starring Milton Berle, or the children’s program, Howdy Doody (1947Ð60). They could also choose between two 15-minute newscastsÑCBS TV News (1948) with Douglas Edwards and NBC’s Camel News Caravan (1948) with John Cameron Swayze (who was required by the tobacco company sponsor to have a burning cigarette always visible when he was on camera). Many early programsÑsuch as Amos ‘n’ Andy (1951) or The Jack Benny Show (1950Ð65)Ñwere borrowed from early television’s older, more established Big Brother: network radio. Most of the formats of the new programsÑnewscasts, situation comedies, variety shows, and dramasÑwere borrowed from radio, too (see radio broadcasting and television programming). NBC and CBS took the funds needed to establish this new medium from their radio profits. However, television networks soon would be making substantial profits of their own, and network radio would all but disappear, except as a carrier of hourly newscasts. Ideas on what to do with the element television added to radio, the visuals, sometimes seemed in short supply. On news programs, in particular, the temptation was to fill the screen with “talking heads,” newscasters simply reading the news, as they might have for radio. For shots of news events, the networks relied initially on the newsreel companies, whose work had been shown previously in movie studios. The number of television sets in use rose from 6,000 in 1946 to some 12 million by 1951. No new invention entered American homes faster than black and white television sets; by 1955 half of all U.S. homes had one.

McCARTHYISM

In 1947 the House Committee on Un-American Activities began an investigation of the film industry, and Sen. Joseph R. McCarthy soon began to inveigh against what he claimed was Communist infiltration of the government. Broadcasting, too, felt the impact of this growing national witch-hunt. Three former members of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) published “Counterattack: The Newsletter of Facts on Communism,” and in 1950 a pamphlet, “Red Channels,” listed the supposedly Communist associations of 151 performing artists. Anti-Communist vigilantes applied pressure to advertisersÑthe source of network profits. Political beliefs suddenly became grounds for getting fired. Most of the producers, writers, and actors who were accused of having had left-wing leanings found themselves blacklisted, unable to get work. CBS even instituted a loyalty oath for its employees. Among the few individuals in television well positioned enough and brave enough to take a stand against McCarthyism was the distinguished former radio reporter Edward R. Murrow. In partnership with the news producer Fred Friendly, Murrow began See It Now, a television documentary series, in 1950. On Mar. 9, 1954, Murrow narrated a report on McCarthy, exposing the senator’s shoddy tactics. Of McCarthy, Murrow observed, “His mistake has been to confuse dissent with disloyalty.” A nervous CBS refused to promote Murrow and Friendly’s program. Offered free time by CBS, McCarthy replied on April 6, calling Murrow “the leader and the cleverest of the jackal pack which is always found at the throat of anyone who dares to expose Communist traitors.” In this TV appearance, McCarthy proved to be his own worst enemy, and it became apparent that Murrow had helped to break McCarthy’s reign of fear. In 1954 the U.S. Senate censured McCarthy, and CBS’s “security” office was closed down.

THE GOLDEN AGE

Between 1953 and 1955, television programming began to take some steps away from radio formats. NBC television president Sylvester Weaver devised the “spectacular,” a notable example of which was Peter Pan (1955), starring Mary Martin, which attracted 60 million viewers. Weaver also developed the magazine-format programs Today, which made its debut in 1952 with Dave Garroway as host (until 1961), and The Tonight Show, which began in 1953 hosted by Steve Allen (until 1957). The third network, ABC, turned its first profit with youth-oriented shows such as Disneyland, which debuted in 1954 (and has since been broadcast under different names), and The Mickey Mouse Club (1955Ð59; see Disney, Walt).

The programming that dominated the two major networks in the mid-1950s borrowed heavily from another medium: theater. NBC and CBS presented such noteworthy, and critically acclaimed, dramatic anthologies as Kraft Television Theater (1947), Studio One (1948), Playhouse 90 (1956), and The U.S. Steel Hour (1953). Memorable television dramas of the eraÑmost of them broadcast liveÑincluded Paddy Chayefsky’s Marty (1955), starring Rod Steiger (Ernest Borgnine starred in the film), and Reginald Rose’s Twelve Angry Men (1954). By the 1955Ð56 television season, 14 of these live-drama anthology series were being broadcast. This is often looked back on as the “Golden Age” of television. However, by 1960 only one of these series was still on the air. Viewers apparently preferred dramas or comedies that, while perhaps less literary, at least had the virtue of sustaining a familiar set of characters week after week. I Love Lucy, the hugely successful situation comedy starring Lucille Ball and Desi Arnaz, had been recorded on film since it debuted in 1951 (lasting until 1957). It had many imitators. The Honeymooners, starring Jackie Gleason, was first broadcast, also via film, in 1955 (lasting until 1956 with the original cast). The first videotape recorder was invented by Ampex in 1956 (see video; video recording; video technology). Another format introduced in the mid-1950s was the big-money quiz show. The $64,000 Question (1955Ð58) and Twenty-One (1956Ð58) quickly shot to the top of the ratings. In 1959, however, the creator of The $64,000 Question, Louis C. Cowan, by that time president of CBS television, was forced to resign from the network amid revelations of widespread fixing of game shows (see Van Doren, Charles).
TELEVISION AND POLITICS

Television news first covered the presidential nominating conventions of the two major parties, events then still at the heart of America politics, in 1952. The term “anchorman” was used, probably for the first time, to describe Walter Cronkite’s central role in CBS’s convention coverage that year. In succeeding decades these conventions would become so concerned with looking good on television that they would lose their spontaneity and eventually their news value. The power of television news increased with the arrival of the popular newscast, The Huntley-Brinkley Report, on NBC in 1956 (see Huntley, Chet, and Brinkley, David). The networks had begun producing their own news film. Increasingly, they began to compete with newspapers as the country’s primary source of news (see journalism).

The election of a young and vital president in 1960, John F. Kennedy, seemed to provide evidence of how profoundly television would change politics. Commentators pointed to the first televised debate that fall between Kennedy, the Democratic candidate for president, and Vice-President Richard M. Nixon, the Republican’s nominee. A survey of those who listened to the debate on radio indicated that Nixon had won; however, those who watched on television, and were able to contrast Nixon’s poor posture and poorly shaven face with Kennedy’s poise and grace, were more likely to think Kennedy had won the debate. Television’s coverage of the assassination of President Kennedy on Nov. 22, 1963, and of the events that followed, provided further evidence of the medium’s power. Most Americans joined in watching coverage of the shocking and tragic events, not as crowds in the streets, but from their own living rooms. A newscast that would soon surpass the popularity of Huntley-Brinkley, The CBS Evening News with Walter Cronkite, debuted in 1962 (and was broadcast until 1981). By the end of the decade Cronkite had become not just a highly respected journalist but, according to public opinion surveys, “the most trusted man in America.” His role in coverage of the Vietnam War would be important. While the overwhelming majority of television news reports on the Vietnam War were supportive of U.S. policy, television news film of the fighting sometimes gave Americans back home an unfamiliar, harsh, and unromantic view of combat. Many believed it contributed to growing public dissatisfaction with the war. And some of the anger of those defending U.S. policy in Vietnam was leveled against television news. In 1965, CBS reporter Morley Safer accompanied a group of U.S. Marines on a “search and destroy” mission to a complex of hamlets called Cam Ne. The Marines faced no enemy resistance, yet they held cigarette lighters to the thatched roofs and proceeded to “waste” Cam Ne. After much debate, Safer’s filmed report on the incident was shown on CBS. Early the next morning the president of CBS received an angry phone call from the president of the United States, Lyndon B. Johnson, accusing the network of a lack of patriotism. During the Tet offensive in 1968, Cronkite went to Vietnam to report a documentary on the state of the war. That documentary, broadcast on Feb. 28, 1968, concluded with what Cronkite has described as “a clearly labeled editorial”: “It is increasingly clear to this reporter that the only rational way out will be to negotiate,” he said. President Johnson was watching Cronkite’s report. According to Bill Moyers, one of his press aides at the time: “The president flipped off the set and said, `If I’ve lost Cronkite, I’ve lost middle America.'”

THE THREE NETWORKS AT THE HEIGHT OF THEIR POWER

In 1964 color broadcasting began on prime-time television. The FCC initially approved a CBS color system, then swung in RCA’s favor after Sarnoff swamped the marketplace with black-and-white sets compatible with RCA color (the CBS color system was not compatible with black-and-white sets and would have required the purchase of new sets). During the 1960s and 1970s a country increasingly fascinated with television was limited to watching almost exclusively what appeared on the three major networks: CBS, NBC, and ABC. These networks purchased time to broadcast their programs from about 200 affiliates eachÑstations in each of the major cities or metropolitan areas of the United States. In the larger cities, there might also be a few independent stations (mostly playing reruns of old network shows) and perhaps a fledgling public broadcasting channel. Programming on each of the three networks was designed to grab a mass audience. Network shows therefore catered, as critics put it, to the lowest common denominator. James Aubrey, president of CBS television, doubled the network’s profits between 1960 and 1966 by broadcasting simple comedies like The Beverly Hillbillies (1962Ð71). In 1961, Newton Minow, then chairman of the FCC, called television a “vast wasteland.” Programming became a little more adventurous with the arrival of more realistic situation comedies, beginning with CBS’s All in the Family in 1971 (broadcast until 1979). Along with situation comediesÑusually a half-hour focused on either a family and their neighbors or a group of co-workersÑthe other main staple of network prime-time programming has been the one-hour drama, featuring the adventures of police, detectives, doctors, lawyers, or, in the early decades of television, cowboys. Daytime television programming consisted primarily of soap operas and quiz shows until the 1980s, when talk shows discussing subjects that were formerly taboo, such as sexuality, became popular.

The three major networks have always been in a continual race for ratings and advertising dollars. CBS and NBC dominated through the mid-1970s, when ABC, traditionally regarded as a poor third, rose to the top of the ratings, largely because of shrewd scheduling.
PUBLIC BROADCASTING

A Carnegie Commission report in 1967 recommended the creation of a fourth, noncommercial, public television network built around the educational nonprofit stations already in operation throughout the United States (see television, noncommercial). Congress created the Public Broadcasting System that year. Unlike commercial networks, which are centered in New York and Los Angeles, PBS’s key stations, many of which produce programs that are shown throughout the network, are spread across the country. PBS comprises more than 300 stations, more than any commercial network. Some of the most praised programs on PBS, such as the dramatic series Upstairs, Downstairs (1971), have been imports from Britain, which has long had a reputation for producing high-quality television. Perhaps the most influential of PBS’s original contributions to American television were the educational program for preschoolers, Sesame Street, which first appeared in 1969Ñand is still a popular programÑand a thoughtful news program called The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer (1995; originally The MacNeil/Lehrer NewsHour, first broadcast in 1975Ñsee MacNeil, Robert and Lehrer, Jim). Among the many special series produced for public broadcasting, The Civil War (1990), a five-part historical documentary, was particularly successful and won some of the largest audiences ever achieved by public TV. PBS funds come from three major sources: congressional appropriations (which suffered substantial cuts beginning in 1982), viewer donations, and private corporate underwriters. None of these types of contributions are problem-free. Government funding brings the possibility of government interference. Conservatives, dating back to the Nixon administration, have pressured PBS to make its programming less liberal. The search for viewer donations has led to long on-air fundraising campaigns. And some critics contend that the need to win corporate support discourages programming that might challenge corporate values.

THE RISE OF CABLE

The force that would challenge the dominance of the three major television networks and offer Americans the choice of dozens and potentially hundreds of television channelsÑcable TVÑbegan quietly in a few geographically isolated towns. Large antennas erected in high places gave everyone connected the chance to receive all the channels available in the nearest city. By 1960 the United States had about 640 such CATV (community antenna television) systems. It soon became apparent, however, that the “television deprived” were not the only viewers who might want access to additional channels and additional programming. In New York City, cable operators contracted to broadcast the home games of the local basketball and hockey teams. By 1971 cable had more than 80,000 subscribers in New York. Then networks specifically designed to be distributed by the cable system began to appear: Time Inc.’s Home Box Office (HBO) in 1975; Ted Turner’s “superstation,” soon renamed WTBS, in 1976; C-SPAN (live broadcasts of the House of Representatives), ESPN (sports), and Nickelodeon (children’s programming), all in 1979. Turner followed with the Cable News Network (CNN) the next year.

INTERNATIONAL GROWTH

Television’s development followed different patterns in other countries. Often government, not private corporations, owned some, most, or all of the major networks. In Great Britain the British Broadcasting Corporation, the country’s dominant radio broadcaster, established and retained dominance over television. The BBC, funded by a tax on the sale of television sets, established a worldwide reputation for producing quality programming. The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, also freed by government support from many commercial pressures, was praised by some observers for the seriousness of much of its news and public-affairs programming. France’s major television networks were also supported by the government; however, in France that support was seen as encouraging a tilt in news coverage toward the side of whatever party happened to be in power. By the late 1980s and 1990s, as cable and direct-satellite television systems increased the number of channels, the hold of these government-funded networks began to weaken. Most countries around the world began moving more toward the U.S. model of privately owned, advertiser-supported television networks.

POLITICS ADAPTS TO TELEVISION

By the 1980s politicians and government leaders were familiar enough with the workings of television to be able to exploit the medium to their own ends. This seemed particularly apparent during the presidency of Ronald Reagan, himself formerly the host of a television show (General Electric Theater, 1954Ð62). Reagan’s skilled advisors were masters of the art of arranging flags and releasing balloons to place him in the most attractive settings. They also knew how to craft and release messages to maximize positive coverage on television newscasts. The Persian Gulf War in 1991 provided further proof of the power of television, with pictures of U.S. bombs falling on the Iraqi capital broadcast live in the United States. Both Iraqi and U.S. leaders admitted to monitoring CNN to help keep up with news of the war. However, the U.S. Defense Department, armed with lessons learned in Vietnam, succeeded in keeping most reporters well away from the action and the bloodshed. Instead, pictures were provided to television by the military of “smart” bombs deftly hitting their targets.
NEW TECHNOLOGIES

In the 1980s, home videocassette recorders became widely available. Viewers gained the ability to record and replay programs and, more significantly, to rent and watch movies at times of their own choosing in their own homes. Video games also became popular during this decade, particularly with the young, and the television, formally just the site of passive entertainment, became an intricate, moving, computerized game board. The number of cable networks grew throughout the 1980s and then exploded in the 1990s as improved cable technology and direct-broadcast satellite television multiplied the channels available to viewers. The number of broadcast networks increased also, with the success of the Fox network and then the arrival of the UPN and WB networks. The share the broadcast networks attracted continued to erode, from well over 90 percent in the early 1980s to under 50 percent by 1997. Although the population of the United States has continued to grow, the Nielson Media Research company estimated that fewer people watched the highly publicized final episode of Seinfeld in 1998 (first aired in 1990; see Seinfeld, Jerry) than watched the final episode of MASH in 1983 (first aired in 1972). The trial of former football star O. J. Simpson in 1994 for the murder of his wife (he was acquitted) further demonstrated the hold that cable networks had on American audiences. Some stations carried almost every minute of the lengthy trial live and then filled the evening with talk shows dissecting that day’s developments. The effects of television on children, particularly through its emphasis on violence and sex, has long been an issue for social scientists, parents, and politicians (see children’s television). In the late 1980s and 1990s, with increased competition brought on by the proliferation of cable networks, talk shows and “tabloid” news shows seemed to broaden further frank or sensational on-air discussion of sex.

In response to government pressure, the television industry decided to display ratings of its programs in 1996. The ratings were designed to indicate the age groups for which the programs might be suitable: TV-G (for general audiences), TV-PG (parental guidance suggested), TV-14 (unsuitable for children under 14), and TV-MA (for mature audiences only). In response to additional complaints, all the networks except NBC agreed the next year to add V (for violence), S (for sex), L (for course language) and D (for suggestive dialogue) to those ratings. Also, the “V-chip” imbedded in new television sets, in accordance with a provision of a telecommunications bill passed in 1996, gave parents the power to automatically prevent their children from watching television programs with inappropriate ratings. Critics of the ratings saw them as a step toward censorship and questioned whether a TV-14 rating would make a program seem more, not less, attractive to an inquisitive child. In 1997 the federal government gave each U.S. television broadcaster an additional channel on which to introduce high definition television, or HDTV. Initial transmissions of this high-resolution form of television, in which images appear much sharper and clearer, began in 1998. Standard television sets cannot pick up HDTV and will presumably have to be replaced or modified by 2006, when traditional, low-definition television broadcasts are scheduled to end and broadcasters are scheduled to return their original, non-HDTV channel to the government. The HDTV format approved in the United States calls for television signals to be transmitted digitally. This will allow for further convergence between computers, the Internet, and television.

In 1998 it was already possible to view video on the World Wide Web and to see and search television broadcasts on a computer. As computers become more powerful, they should be able to handle video as easily as they now handle text. The television schedule may eventually be replaced by a system in which viewers are able to watch digitally stored and distributed programs or segments of programs whenever they want. Such technological changes, including the spread of new cable networks, have been arriving slower in most other countries than in the United States. Indeed, according to one survey, it was only in the 1990s that the spread of television transmitters, television sets, and electricity made it possible for half of the individuals in the world to watch television. However, television’s attraction globally is strong. Those human beings who have a television set watch it, by one estimate, for an average of two-and-a-half hours a day.

Mitchell Stephens

Bibliography: Barnouw, Erik, Tube of Plenty: The Evolution of American Television, 2d ed. (1990); Fisher, David E. and Marshall J., Tube: The Invention of Television (1997); Stephens, Mitchell, Broadcast News, 3d ed. (1993), A History of News (1996) and The Rise of the Image, the Fall of the Word (1998); Watson, Mary A., Defining Visions: Television and the American Experience since 1945 (1997).

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It’s hard to believe YouTube is only 9 years old. How ever did we procrastinate without videos of babies break-dancing and chumps wiping out on treadmills? Then again, it’s also remarkable that the video-sharing site has lasted this long: five minutes is a more typical Internet life span. But YouTube — the world’s third most visited website after Google and Facebook — shows no signs of slowing down. The site marked the May anniversary of its 2005 beta launch with another milestone: YouTube’s users now clock more than 2 billion views every single day.

That kind of reach must have been inconceivable for former PayPal co-workers Chad Hurley, Steve Chen and Jawed Karim, who created YouTube as a Flickr-style sharing site for videos in February 2005. They posted their first clip, a 19-second shot of Karim at the San Diego Zoo, that April. By November, with the aid of neophyte-friendly uploading software, YouTube users were sending 8 terabytes of data flickering across the Internet every day — the equivalent, Hurley noted, of the entire contents of a Blockbuster store. By the time Google paid $1.65 billion in stock for the company in the fall of 2006, the site boasted more than 700 million views a week. Today more video is uploaded to YouTube in 60 days than all three U.S. television networks have created in 60 years.

Backlash was inevitable, of course, and YouTube has been slammed for encouraging everything from narcissism to piracy. It has also reportedly lost money every year so far. But maybe not for long: already its signature amateur content is giving way to professional fare that’s more attractive to advertisers. (In April, the slick video for Lady Gaga’s hit single “Bad Romance” became YouTube’s most popular video ever.) Which means YouTube might be a very different company by the time it celebrates birthday No. 10.

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Period Overview (1896-1927) – General reviews of the individuals, activities and technical advances which characterized this era.

The Electric Telegraph (1838-1922) – The electric telegraph revolutionized long-distance communication, replacing earlier semaphore communication lines. In addition to its primary use for point-to-point messages, other applications were developed, including printing telegraphs (“tickers”) used for distributing stock quotes and news reports.

News and Entertainment by Telephone (1876-1929) – While the telegraph was mainly limited to transmitting Morse code and printed messages, the invention of the telephone made distant audio communication possible. And although the telephone was mostly used for private conversations, there was also experimentation with providing home entertainment. In 1893 a particularly sophisticated system, the Telefon Hirmondó, began operation in Budapest, Hungary — one of its off-shoots, the United States Telephone Herald Company and its affiliates, did not meet with the same financial success.

Personal Communication by Wireless (1879-1922) – After Heinrich Hertz demonstrated the existence of radio waves, some were enchanted by the idea that this remarkable scientific advance could be used for personal, mobile communication. But it would take decades before the technology would catch up with the idea.

Radio at Sea (1891-1922) – The first major use of radio was for navigation, where it greatly reduced the isolation of ships, saving thousands of lives, even though for the first couple of decades radio was generally limited to Morse code transmissions. In particular, the 1912 sinking of the Titanic highlighted the value of radio to ocean vessels.

Early Radio Industry Development (1897-1914) – As with most innovations, radio began with a series of incremental scientific discoveries and technical refinements, which eventually led to the development of commercial applications. But profits were slow in coming, and for many years the largest U.S. radio firms were better known for their fraudulent stock selling practices than for their financial viability.

Pioneering U.S. Radio Activities (1897-1917) – Marconi’s demonstration of a practical system for generating and receiving long-range radio signals sparked interest worldwide. It also resulted in numerous competing experimenters and companies throughout the industrialized world, including a number of important figures in the United States, led by Reginald Fessenden and Lee DeForest.

Alternator-Transmitter Development (1891-1922) – Radio signals were originally produced by spark transmitters, which were noisy and inefficient. So experimenters worked to develop “continuous-wave” — also known as “undamped” — transmitters, whose signals went out on a single frequency, and which could also transmit full-audio signals. One approach used to generate continuous-wave signals was high-speed electrical alternators. By 1919, international control of the Alexanderson alternator-transmitter was considered so important that it triggered the formation of the Radio Corporation of America. However, within just a few years alternator-transmitters would become obsolete.

Arc-Transmitter Development (1904-1928) – A more compact — although not quite as refined — method for generating continuous-wave radio signals was the arc-transmitter, initially developed by Danish inventor Valdemar Poulsen. Because arc-transmitters were less complicated than alternator-transmitters, a majority of the early experimental audio transmissions would use this device.

Audion and Vacuum-tube Receiver Development (1907-1916) – Lee DeForest invented a three-element vacuum-tube detector which he called an Audion, but initially it was so crude and unreliable that it was little more than a curiosity. After a lull of a few years, more capable scientists and engineers, led by AT&T’s Dr. Harold Arnold, improved vacuum-tubes into robust and powerful amplifiers, which would revolutionize radio reception.

Pre-War Vacuum-tube Transmitter Development (1914-1917) – AT&T initially developed vacuum-tubes as amplifiers for long-distance telephone lines. However, this was only the beginning of the device’s versatility, as various scientists and inventors would develop numerous innovations, including efficient continuous-wave transmitters, which would eventually replace the earlier spark, arc, and alternator varieties. Vacuum-tube transmitters were also used for an increasing number of broadcasting experiments, however these fledgling efforts came to an abrupt end on April 6, 1917, when the United States entered World War One. At that time, all radio stations not needed by the government were closed, and it became illegal, for the duration of the war, for the general population to listen to any radio transmissions, from any source.

Pioneering Amateurs (1900-1917) – Radio captured the imagination of thousands of ordinary persons who wanted to experiment with this amazing new technology. Until late 1912 there was no licencing or regulation of radio transmitters in the United States, so amateurs — known informally as “hams” — were free to set up stations wherever they wished. But with the adoption of licencing, amateur operators faced a crisis, as most were now restricted to transmitting on a wavelength of 200 meters (1500 kilohertz), which had a limited sending range. They successfully organized to overcome this limitation, only to face a second hurdle in April, 1917, when the U.S. government shut down all amateur stations, as the country entered World War One.

Radio During World War One (1914-1919) – Civilian radio activities were suspended during the war, as the radio industry was taken over by the government. Numerous military applications were developed, including direct communication with airplanes. The war also exposed thousands of service personnel to the on-going advances in radio technology, and even saw a few experiments with broadcasting entertainment to the troops.

Expanded Audion and Vacuum-tube Development (1917-1930) – The wartime consolidation of the radio industry under government control led to important advances in radio equipment engineering and manufacturing, especially vacuum-tube technology. Still, some would look toward the day when vacuum-tubes would be supplanted by something more efficient and compact, although this was another development which would take decades to be realized.

Amateur Radio After World War One (1919-1924) – Although there was concern that amateur radio stations would not be allowed to return to the airwaves after the war, in 1919 the wartime restrictions were ended. And the next few years would see tremendous strides, as amateurs adopted vacuum-tube technology and began to explore transmitting on shortwave frequencies, which resulted in significant increases in range and reliability. However, although they had laid much of groundwork that led to the development of broadcasting, in early 1922 amateur radio stations were explictly banned from making entertainment broadcasts.

1. Broadcasting After World War One (1918-1921) – Although still unfocused, scattered broadcasting activities, taking advantage of improvements in vacuum-tube technology, accelerated after the end of the Great War. Initially there was a shortage of equipment, especially vacuum-tubes, due to ongoing patent disputes, and many of the early efforts were government related or by persons who had access to surplus military equipment. But the experiments continued to expand, as the radio industry returned to civilian control.
2. Big Business and Radio (1915-1922) – Once the radio industry finally became profitable, major corporations — including the American Telephone & Telegraph Company, General Electric, and Westinghouse — moved into the field. Meanwhile, in 1919, due to pressure from the U.S. government, American Marconi’s assets were sold to General Electric, which used them to form the Radio Corporation of America.
3. Broadcasting Becomes Widespread (1922-1923) – Led by Westinghouse’s 1920 and 1921 establishment of four well-financed stations — located in or near Pittsburgh, Boston, Chicago and New York City — there was a growing sense of excitement as broadcasting activities became more organized. In December, 1921, the Department of Commerce issued regulations formally establishing a broadcast service. Then, in early 1922, a “broadcasting boom” occurred, as a sometimes chaotic mix of stations, sponsored by a wide range of businesses, organizations and individuals, sprang up, numbering over 500 by the end of the year.
4. The Development of Radio Networks (1916-1941) – The introduction of vacuum-tube amplification for telephone lines allowed AT&T to experiment with sending speeches to distant audiences that listened over loudspeakers. The next step would be to use the lines to interconnect radio stations, and in December, 1921 a memo written by two AT&T engineers, J. F. Bratney and H. C. Lauderback, outlined the establishment of a national radio network, financially supported by advertising. General Electric, Westinghouse and RCA responded by forming their own radio network, however, unable to match AT&T’s progress, in 1926 they bought out AT&T’s network operations, which were reorganized to form the National Broadcasting Company. Creating competing national networks proved difficult, and over the next decade only two others would be established: the Columbia Broadcasting System in 1927, and the Mutual Broadcasting System in 1934.
5. Financing Radio Broadcasting (1898-1927) – Soon after Marconi’s groundbreaking demonstrations, there was speculation about transmitting radio signals to paying customers. However, there was no practical way to limit broadcasts to specific receivers, so for a couple decades broadcasting activities were largely limited to experiments, plus a limited number of public service transmissions by government stations. During the 1922 “broadcasting boom”, most programming was commercial-free, and entertainers, caught up in the excitement of this revolutionary new invention, performed for free. Meanwhile, a few people wondered how to pay for all this. In early 1922, the American Telephone & Telegraph Company began promoting the controversial idea of using advertising to finance programming. Initially AT&T claimed that its patent rights gave it a monopoly over U.S. radio advertising, but a 1923 industry settlement paved the way for other stations to begin to sell time. And eventually advertising-supported private stations became the standard for U.S. broadcasting stations.
6. Fakes, Frauds, and Cranks (1866-1922) – Unfortunately, some “misunderstood geniuses” are actually crazy, or dishonest, or both.
7. Word Origins – Reviews of the history of the words “radio”, “broadcast” and “ham”.
8. Early Government Regulation (1903-1941) – Compared to most other nations, the United States was slow to regulate radio communication. International issues were dealt with by conferences held in Berlin, Germany in 1903 and 1906, followed by a London convention in 1912. The U.S. issued limited shipboard regulations in 1910, but did not implement comprehensive regulations and station licencing until 1912. The development of broadcasting in the early 1920s brought significant challenges and changes, which resulted in passage of the Radio Act of 1927, and the formation of the Federal Radio Commission.
9. Original Articles – Writings about United States radio history, emphasizing the early AM broadcast band (mediumwave).
   • Mystique of the Three-Letter Callsigns
   • Three-Letter Roll Call
   • K/W Call Letters in the United States
   • United States Callsign Policies
   • U.S. Special Land Stations: Overview
   • U.S. Special Land Stations: 1913-1921 Recap
   • Building the Broadcast Band
   • United States Pioneer Broadcast Service Stations
   • U.S. Pioneer Broadcast Service Stations: Actions Through June, 1922
   • United States Temporary Broadcast Station Grants: 1922-1928
   • Early Commerce Department Records: Examples
   • Kilohertz-to-Meters Conversion Charts
   • Washington D.C. AM Station History
   • Extraterrestrial DX Circa 1924: “Will We Talk to Mars in August?”
   • The International Radio Week Tests
   • “Battle of the Century”: The WJY Story
   • Early U.S. Telephone-based Entertainment Companies
   • Nikola Tesla: The Guy Who DIDN’T “Invent Radio”

Students are the future, but what’s the future for students? To arm them with the relevant, timeless skills for our rapidly changing world, we need to revolutionize what it means to learn.

Click below to watch video:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xoSJ3_dZcm8

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qC_T9ePzANg

Project Based Learning is a teaching method in which students gain knowledge and skills by working for an extended period of time to investigate and respond to a complex question, problem, or challenge. Essential Elements of PBL include:

• Significant Content – At its core, the project is focused on teaching students important knowledge and skills, derived from standards and key concepts at the heart of academic subjects.
• 21st century competencies – Students build competencies valuable for today’s world, such as problem solving, critical thinking, collaboration, communication, and creativity/innovation, which are explicitly taught and assessed.
• In-Depth Inquiry – Students are engaged in an extended, rigorous process of asking questions, using resources, and developing answers.
• Driving Question – Project work is focused by an open-ended question that students understand and find intriguing, which captures their task or frames their exploration.
• Need to Know – Students see the need to gain knowledge, understand concepts, and apply skills in order to answer the Driving Question and create project products, beginning with an Entry Event that generates interest and curiosity.
• Voice and Choice – Students are allowed to make some choices about the products to be created, how they work, and how they use their time, guided by the teacher and depending on age level and PBL experience.
• Critique and Revision – The project includes processes for students to give and receive feedback on the quality of their work, leading them to make revisions or conduct further inquiry.
• Public Audience – Students present their work to other people, beyond their classmates and teacher

Click below to watch video:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LMCZvGesRz8

Watch the video below: Goals for the Multimedia Communications program at WBACTC:

https://www.teachingchannel.org/videos/video-production-class-overview

Like mic fright, camera panic can range from mild to wild.

For many performers, it is a stronger feeling than mic fright because television adds the element of being seen as well as being heard. There is a sense of anonymity in radio that offers some comfort, whereas the camera removes any barrier between the performer and audience.

The television camera is the beginning of the video link that delivers the image of the performer from the studio (or field) to the viewer’s TV set or monitor. As a television performer, you should know some basic guidelines for being the person in front of the camera.

For many people, the first few experiences before the camera are unsettling. As noted, camera panic can set in and words that usually flow easily suddenly become stuck in your throat. Hesitations and mistakes come in a deluge. Actually, this anxiety that many experience is quite normal. The primary reason for all the mistakes is the split attention that develops when you go on camera. Suddenly, you are aware of everything you say, how you look, how you’re standing or sitting, and just about everything else imaginable. As a result, instead of having 100 percent of your attention focused on what you are saying, you are operating at about 50 percent of your potential because the other half is busy criticizing and worrying about how things are going. This is where practice comes in. The more camera time you get, the easier it all becomes. Work on avoiding the self-criticism and put all your concentration on the presentation. It’s another skill that can be learned. Eventually, you’ll know the camera is there but you won’t care. Any kind of speaking performance can help you adjust. Public speaking is good practice, as is theater work. The goal is to get used to having others looking at and listening to you. Judging by the vast number of people appearing on television, it isn’t that hard a skill to master.

Further, fear of failure is strong for television performers because nobody wants to make fools of themselves when everybody can see them. On television, you must be concerned with not only your actual performance (for example, reading the script properly) and your general appearance, but also your posture, your movements, your facial expression, your attire, and so on. A “fluff” in any area can play on your anxiety about failure. Of course, being inexperienced and unprepared will cause camera panic, just as it will cause mic fright. Beginning performers can be overwhelmed by television. The lights and cameras in the studio and the crew members necessary for the production process all add to the distraction. However, with practice in this environment it becomes easier and easier. Use every opportunity available to get camera practice. This is the surest way to get over the discomfort. Work on keeping your concentration up and your focus on the task at hand. Adequate preparation is necessary for broadcast talent and will lessen any chance of camera panic or mic fright that comes from not being ready to go.

Because the visual element is so dominant in television, a cause of camera panic can be a dislike of one’s appearance. However, if you apply all the things covered in this text, you have no reason to worry. Proper dress, posture, preparation, and delivery will make you look like a pro. Doing those things will likely mean that you are the only one uncomfortable with your appearance.

Occasionally, nearly all broadcasters encounter situations in which they are unsure of, or disturbed by, the circumstances they are covering, and feel off balance. Keeping your poise and letting your professionalism and experience take over will go a long way toward getting you through a difficult time.

There are many basic concepts that are important for your development as a video performer in the mass media industries.  An understanding of the studio environment will make your performance efefots better, as will practice.  Each time you are in a performance situation, try to aply a few of the concepts you ahve learned. We will be covering them in more depth in the regular monthly issues of School Video News.  Before long, many of these techniques will start to become second nature and you will be on your way to being a polished video performer.

More Than Yearbooks or Newspapers: High School Journalism Is About the Process

By Adam Maksl

Co-authored with Megan Fromm

Communicating in the Studio

Hand signals,Cue Cards, Prompters, and IFB

One of the first things to be learned in the television studio is that microphones are very sensitive devices that sometimes seem better at picking up things you don’t want to be heard than things you do. This means that talking in the studio with a mic open can be dangerous, as previously noted. As a result, other means of communicating have been developed. While the studio crew will be using an intercom headphone system, the talent usually gets operating information in three ways: hand signals, cue cards, and the IFB system. Hand signals were developed in the early days of television and are still commonly used today. However, the signals and their meanings can vary from studio to studio, so it’s wise to find out in advance all the hand signs a talent may receive during the course of a production.

Your contact person in the studio is the floor manager. This person is likely to be relaying instructions from the director and will be giving you the various cues or signs at the start of and during your studio presentation. Good floor managers position themselves so that the talent can see the cues without turning their heads. The talent should focus on the lens or other designated point and view the hand signal with peripheral vision. If the cue giver is positioned too far to the side to see easily, during rehearsal, it is not inappropriate to ask him or her to stand closer to the camera. During a production, the floor manager is responsible for getting the cue to the talent and so may be seen crawling behind sets or across the floor to get into the talent’s line of vision. However, having received the cue, the talent should never acknowledge it. Nods and similar motions will be very evident to the audience and will be a distraction. Even when you are certain you are off camera, acknowledgments are risky, as it is equally certain that sometime you will be wrong. It is the floor manager’s responsibility to watch the talent’s eyes to establish that the cue has been seen. Remember, there are no standard cues, but there are some that are used in many television facilities.

Hand Signals
The standby signal, given with the hand overhead with the palm forward, is similar to the starter’s words at a track meet—”On your marks, get set …..—just before the gun goes off to start the race. This is usually given about 15 seconds before the show begins and should bring the talent to a full alert position, both mentally and physically. Since the camera will see you at least a moment before you start talking, consider yourself “on” from the moment the standby signal is given. The next cue is you’re on or cue talent and is the true start of the segment. The floor manager’s hand, held overhead for “standby,” suddenly swings down and stops with a finger pointing directly at the person speaking first or at the lens of the camera he or she should be playing to. The “cue talent” signal is almost always given immediately after the “standby” cue, and rarely is either of these cues given alone.

The “look here” cue directs the talent to a particular camera. As noted, studio cameras usually have a tally light to tell you which one is on, but some field cameras do not. In the field, except in major productions, you probably won’t have a floor manager. Instead, the camera operator or a producer will give you the cue. In a multiple-camera production, the floor manager will remind you where to look by pointing his or her finger at the camera lens of the camera that is on at the moment. To direct a performer from one camera to another, “a change camera” hand signal is employed. The floor manager will start by pointing at the camera that currently is on, and then sweep that hand downward and bring it up to point at the new camera. The talent can turn smoothly to make a transition or can glance down, as if at notes or a script, and then look up at the new camera. The performer may have to slightly shift his or her body to achieve the best position for the new camera. Avoid looking upward as you go from camera to camera because that is an unmotivated action and may cause the audience to wonder what is going on up in the light grid.

If you need to change position, the floor manager will seem to be pushing you to the left, right, or back, or pulling you forward with two hands. These signals are very easy to understand. Think of the “stretch-it-out” hand signal as pulling taffy. The fingers are brought together and then pulled apart as if stretching something, like taffy or a big rubber band. It can mean that you are talking too fast or that there appears to be insufficient material for the time remaining, so please stretch it out, perhaps by talking a bit more slowly or by adding ad-libs or planned extra topics or questions. The reverse of the stretch-it-out signal is the “speed-up” cue. It usually consists of the index finger pointed at you and then rotated rapidly at the wrist. It means that you’re not getting through the material fast enough, that time is running out, or that what you are saying is boring and you should move on to something else.

Timing
Television segments and programs are usually tightly timed, so it is essential to be alert for time cues and to follow them closely. It is useful to develop a time sense by practicing time estimation with a second-hand until you have some sense of how long 15 and 30 seconds are, in particular. They can be longer than you suspect. It is very disconcerting to your production crew to give you a cue indicating that thirty seconds remain and have you run through your concluding remarks in the next five seconds, most likely leaving them unprepared to close the show and, perhaps, with no way to fill the twenty-five seconds you have left them.

Television timing always deals with the time remaining, so a cue indicates how much time you have left to go. Again, the floor manager should give these cues where you can see them easily and 15 Secondthey should not be acknowledged, as it will be very evident. Here, too, there will be variations from studio to studio, but the majority of floor managers will simply hold up two hands with fingers spread for “ten minutes,” one hand for “five minutes,” and then the appropriate number of fingers for the remaining minutes. At “thirty seconds,” a particularly important cue, many studios use crossed, extended arms or index fingers as the cue, while others will form a C with the thumb and index finger as the indication. The “fifteen seconds’ mark is another important point, and its signal is often a clenched fist. When the end of a production is reached, a “wrap it up” cue will be given. While this signal may vary, many studios commonly use one hand about six inches above the other and then both rotated in a Ferris-wheel motion. This cue means that you should conclude the segment or the show. Some studios may assist you further by having the floor manager count down the last ten seconds using fingers so that you have a clear picture of the time remaining.

This should enable you to end professionally, exactly on time. A “cut” signal—slitting the throat with the index finger-is given to show the production is finished. But again, signals vary from location to location. It’s up to you to be sure you know the ones being used where you are.

Cue Cards
Another way to get information to a television performer is to use cue cards. Cue cards come in three “flavors.” In two of them, they are simply substitutes for hand signals, whereas the third group carries script segments. The basic cue card is a heavy poster paper card, perhaps 16″ X 18″ with significant numbers or words printed on it. Note Figure 3.7. Most studios have a full set of time cards, perhaps starting as high as “30 minutes” and progressing down to “30 seconds” or lower. The word cues on cards could include “wind it up,” “slow down,” or “speed up,” plus any other instruction the studio has found to be helpful. All these are held under the lens of the camera you are addressing or otherwise in your field of view.

Devices used to provide the script to you during segments or entire shows include cue cards and teleprompters. For example, except for some side chatter, all of a television newscast will be scripted and on the prompter. Script cues are usually hand written on cards that are 20″ X 24″ or even larger. These are often used when only a short written segment is to be presented. Cards have been used in longer scenes, but this involves skill in changing the cards without dropping them or getting them out of order. For the talent, moving from the bottom of one card to the top of the next can be a distraction. A well-planned card will finish with an entire sentence or paragraph, so there is a natural pause as you move to the next card.

Prompter as seen from anchor’s perspectiveTeleprompter
Teleprompters have been around virtually since the beginning of television. Originally they consisted of long rolls of paper that were printed on with oversize type. A roll was placed in a box mounted about the lens and the paper was drawn on to a take-up reel by a variable speed electric motor. An operator stood beside the camera and controlled the speed of the paper rolling as the talent read the script. These were useful, but presented problems when script changes occurred. Today, teleprompters are a combination of a small flat-panel computer monitor mounted horizontally below the lens, a special mirror system that is mounted in front of the lens, and a computer that generates the words that will appear. The mirror is a unique variety that enables you to see the words reflected off the screen while allowing the lens to see through the mirror as if nothing was there. The words on the screen are reversed so that they will appear normal when viewed in the mirror. The speed at which the new words appear is adjustable. Usually they flow up from the bottom of the screen. Figure (left) shows you the talent’s perspective.

Whether reading prompters or cue cards, professionals make it look easy; in reality, they are often reading copy they have never seen before. There is a story of old-time performer Arthur Godfrey breaking up at his own jokes on his television show. The reason was he was so good at reading the prompter that he never rehearsed and often had not heard the jokes before. The goal, of course, is to read the copy and make it sound conversational, delivering it as you would in an unrehearsed statement you are creating as you speak. This takes concentration and practice. Video Clip 3.16 shows a performer utilizing a teleprompter. We will devote more attention to working with teleprompters in the section on Production.

IFBIFB
In recent years, the IFB, or interruptible foldback, has become a common means of communicating with the talent. This is an earpiece, usually made out of transparent plastic, which is worn by the talent during the production. A wire or tube extends behind your head and often to a small intercom pack you’ll he asked to wear. A little observation should enable you to spot them on most news and talk program performers. See Figure 3.9. These provide a means for someone in the control room to speak directly to the talent who is on the air. In some cases, interview guests wear them as well. The first experience using one will be distracting, since it means that while you may be trying to speak intelligently or read a teleprompter, someone is giving you instructions in your ear. A good communicator will try to keep these directions very short and sandwich them in between your statements. Hundreds of people do it successfully every day, and you can, too. Several practice sessions should prepare you. Try to keep what you are saying in the foreground of your mind and hear the instructions in the background. The IFB systems have become so common that you are almost certain to be expected to use them, so getting experience whenever possible is essential.